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'''George Alexander McGuire''' (1866-1934) was a bishop and founder in 1921 of the non-canonical African Orthodox Church,<refgroup="note">The African Orthodox Church (AOC) is a non-canonical, primarily African-American denomination, in the [[w:High church|High church]] Anglican tradition. The AOC holds to the historic three-fold ministry of bishops, priests, and deacons, and lays strong emphasis on [[apostolic succession]]. The church celebrates the seven sacraments of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Its worship is liturgical, blending elements of Eastern and Western rites. The [[Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed|Nicene]], Apostles', and Athanasian creeds are affirmed. (Mead, Frank S. ''Handbook of Denominations in the United States.'' 10th edition. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995. pp.128-129.)</ref> which had been envisaged as a home for Blacks of the Protestant Episcopal persuasion who wanted ecclesiastical independence, based on [[Apostolic succession|Apostolic tradition]]. In addition he was Chaplain-General of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).

[[File:GEORGE-ALEXANDER-MCGUIRE.jpg|left|thumb|150px|George Alexander McGuire - Rector of The African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas (1902 – 1905)]]By 1901 McGuire was appointed rector of [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm St. Thomas' Episcopal Church] in Philadelphia. Saint Thomas' served the African American elite of Philadelphia and was one of the most prestigious congregations in African American Christianity, having been started in 1794 by [[w:Absalom Jones|Absalom Jones]], one of the founders, together with [[w:Richard Allen (bishop)|Richard Allen]], of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.<refname=Martin>Tony Martin. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004. p.776.</ref> He is listed as the rector of St. Thomas' in Philadelphia from 1902-05, succeeded as rector there by A.C.V. Cartier (1906-12), the man whom Fr. [[Raphael Morgan]] had recommended for [[Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] [[ordination]] to the [[Church of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriachate]].

McGuire returned to the United States in 1918 and soon afterwards joined the [[w:Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League|UNIA]]. Marcus Garvey, the UNIA’s president, appointed him first Chaplain-General of the organization, at its inaugural international convention in New York in August 1920. In this position he McGuire wrote two important documents of UNIA, ''Universal Negro Ritual'', and ''Universal Negro Catechism,'' the latter containing both religious and historical sections, reflecting his interest in religion and race history.<ref name=Martin/> This was a period of black disillusionment and disenchantment with their status and with the enactment of discriminatory laws. This was not only true in the American South, but also in the Northern cities where the discrimination was often worse. It was also a time when the idea of separate development of the races was being aired. The mainline churches, such as the Episcopal Church (Anglican), wanted to bring the faith to the Blacks, but did not want to be seen as advocates of “political and social equality”.<ref>Tony Martin[[Makarios (Tillyrides) of Kenya]]. ''[http://bookswww.googleorthodoxresearchinstitute.caorg/articles/church_history/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexandermakarios_tillyrides_east_africa.htm The Origin of Orthodoxy in East Africa].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem RenaissanceOrthodox Research Institute.'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004. pp.776.</ref>

On [[September 2]] 1921, in the ''Church of the Good Shepherd'' in New York City, McGuire founded the ''"African Orthodox Church"'' (AOC),<refgroup="note">The new denomination was originally called the ''' ''Independent Episcopal Church'' ''', but at its first Conclave, or House of Bishops, meeting on [[September 10]], 1924, the denomination was formally organized as the African Orthodox Church (AOC). Not be confused with the canonical [[Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America]] (AOC). (Right Rev. Philippe L. De Coster (B.Th., D.D. (Belgium), Latin Old Roman Catholic Church of Flanders). ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/2199133/African-Orthodox African Orthodox Church: Its General History]''. 1st Ed. Publ. Eucharist and Devotion, 1993-2008. p.3.</ref> envisaged as a home for blacks of the protestant Episcopal persuasion who wanted ecclesiastical independence. The church, based on traditional Catholic doctrines, was open to all but under complete black leadership and control. McGuire declared to his followers: ''“You must forget the white gods. Erase the white gods from your hearts. We must go back to the native church, to our own true God.”'' The notion of associating with "Orthodoxy" was possibly formed for several reasons. One source of inspiration for the Orthodox Church may have been due to McGuire's association with the Very Reverend Father [[Raphael Morgan]]. In addition, "the Orthodox branch of Christianity, divided into Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, was never associated with racism, colonialism or religious imperialism. It was never involved in widespread missionary activity and had limited contacts with Afro-Americans and Africans. Because of its low profile, it was not perceived as racist. The adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy were primarily southern and eastern Europeans, people not associated in the United States with the establishment. The other division, Oriental Orthodoxy, had its membership in what is today referred to as, the Third World - the Middle East, Egypt, Ethiopia and southern India. The name ''African Orthodox Church'' denoted its aim: to be a universal Black church in affiliation with a branch of Christianity not known for racism or colonialism."<ref name=Natsoulas>Theodore Natsoulas. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Spread of the African Orthodox Church to Africa.'' '''Journal of Religion in Africa''', Vol. 12, Fasc. 2 (1981), pp.81-104.</ref><ref group="note">Article one of the constitution of the African Orthodox church explicitly confirmed and endorsed the church's twofold understanding of its itself and its mandate:<br>:"The name of this church, which was organized September 2nd, 1921, is and shall be THE AFRICAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. Its faith as declared, is Orthodox, in conformity with the Orthodox Churches of the East from which its Episcopate is derived. While it admits to membership and other privileges persons of all races, IT SEEKS PARTICULARLY TO REACH OUT TO THE MILLIONS OF AFRICAN DESCENT IN BOTH HEMISPHERES, and declares itself to be perpetually autonomous and controlled by Negroes. Hence the name, AFRICAN ORTHODOX."<br>(Warren C. Platt. ''The African Orthodox Church: An Analysis of Its First Decade.'' '''Church History''', Vol. 58, No. 4 (Dec., 1989), pp.483-484.)</ref> Shortly after the UNIA convention in August 1924, McGuire broke with Garvey and focused on expanding his church which mostly attracted Anglican West Indian immigrants, from the [[w:High Church|High Church]] Anglican tradition (i.e. [[w:Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholicism]]). McGuire would have liked to have seen AOC designated as the official church of UNIA, but Garvey was unwilling to grant such an exclusive priviledge to any denomination. McGuire accordingly resigned from his position at UNIA on the formation of AOC. He then ensured official "orthodox" status for his new church by arranging [[apostolic succession]] for himself.<ref name=Martin/>  ===Consecration in the American Catholic Church===Negotitions were immediately initiated with the [[Orthodox Church in America|Russian Orthodox Church in America]] in order to obtain valid [[Holy Orders|Apostolic Orders]]. The Russians were hesitant to assist the formation of another "independent" jurisdiction however, making it clear that they were willing to talk, but in the end, they intended to fully control this Black jurisdiction. Such an arrangement was totally unacceptable to Fr. McGuire and the other leaders of this new jurisdiction. Other Orthodox groups in the U.S.A. expressed the same willingness and intent as the Russians, however, the ''African Orthodox Church'' finally entered into negotiations with Archbishop [[w:Joseph René Vilatte|Joseph René Vilatte]] and the ''"American Catholic Church"'' (ACC).<ref group="note">The "American Catholic Church" (ACC) was a sect founded by [[w:Joseph René Vilatte|Joseph René Vilatte]] as an off-shoot of the Episcopalian Church. It included the jurisdictions and groups which had come out of Joseph René Vilatte's Episcopal ministry or were under his oversight. Among them were French and English speaking constituencies, and Polish and Italian ordinariates. The ACC began on [[August 20]], 1894, at a synod held in Cleveland, Ohio, where Polish-speaking parishes joined the jurisdiction of Bishop Vilatte, however the ACC was actually incorporated in July 1915.</ref> Fr. McGuire had himself re-ordained [[Bishop]] in the ''American Catholic Church'' being consecrated on [[September 28]] 1921, in Chicago, Illinois, by Archbishop [[w:Joseph René Vilatte|Joseph René Vilatte]],<ref group="note">Joseph René Vilatte was ordained to the '''Diaconate''' on [[June 6]], 1885, and to the '''Priesthood''' on [[June 7]], 1885, by Bishop [[w:Eduard Herzog|Eduard Herzog]], the Old Catholic Bishop of Berne, Switzerland.  His '''Episcopal Consecration''' took place on [[May 29]], 1892, in the Cathedral of Archbishop Alvares in Colombo (Ceylon), when he was consecrated by the the Latin Rite [[Church of Antioch (Syriac)|Jacobite]] Bishop Mar Julious I ([[w:Antonio Francisco Xavier Alvares|Antonio Francisco Xavier Alvares]], of the [[Brahmavar (Goan) Orthodox Church]])) and by two other Jacobite bishops, with the permission of the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch ([[w:Ignatius Peter IV|Ignatius Peter IV (III)]]). His long time goal had been to be recognized as the ''"Old Catholic Archbishop of North America."'' The Jacobites consecrated him as: ''"Mar Timotheous I, Jacobite Old Catholic Bishop of North America."'' (See: '''[[Episcopi vagantes]]''').

Shortly after The Episcopal Church subsequently [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] him. And the UNIA convention Roman Catholic Church excommunicated him both in August 1924, McGuire broke with Garvey 1900 and focused on expanding in 1907 (although he was reconciled to Rome from 1925 up to his church which mostly attracted Anglican West Indian immigrantsdeath in 1929). McGuire would have liked to have seen AOC designated Rene Vilatte as bishop made more than twenty subsequent consecrations of new bishops and of new churches. These consecrations became doubtful because they were made outside the authority of the Church. This prompted '''the official church Syro-Jacobite Church to officially withdraw recognition of UNIAthe secession churches in 1938'''. Further, but Garvey Vilatte was unwilling to grant such an exclusive priviledge to any denominationaccused of not upholding the canons, nor did he remain within the jurisdiction of the Church of Antioch. McGuire accordingly resigned <br>Some of the Old Catholic sects descended from his position at UNIA on Vilatte claim that, despite the fact that he had, in practical fact, abandoned any connection with the formation Jacobites, some of AOC. He then ensured official the Jacobite sects in India consider him a "orthodoxSaint" status for . And while the validity of Vilatte's Orders in the Roman Catholic Church was never finally settled, though personal opinions tend to the negative, most non-Roman Old Catholics maintain that his new church Orders were valid.</ref> assisted by bishop Carl A. Nybladh who had been consecrated by arranging [[apostolic succession]] for himselfVilatte.<ref>Tony MartinRight Rev. Philippe L. De Coster (B.Th., D.D. (Belgium), Latin Old Roman Catholic Church of Flanders). ''[http://bookswww.scribd.com/doc/2199133/African-Orthodox African Orthodox Church: Its General History]''. 1st Ed. Publ. Eucharist and Devotion, 1993-2008.googlep.ca3.)</books?idref><ref group=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false "note">In the earlier issues of ''The Negro Churchman'', the official organ of the AOC, there were frequent references to the validity of McGuire's consecration. On at least four occasions, George Alexandera chart was printed on the cover page which traced the apostolic succession from the [[Church of Antioch (Syriac)|See of Antioch]] to McGuire:<br>:1. Ignatius Peter III, Syro-Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch and successor to S. Peter consecrated<br>:2. Paul Athanasius in 1877 consecrated<br>:3. Archbishop Alvarez of Ceylon in 1879 consecrated<br> :4. Archbishop Vilatte in 1892 consecrated<br>:5. Bishop McGuire in 1921<br>(Theodore Natsoulas. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Spread of the African Orthodox Church to Africa.'' '''Encyclopedia Journal of the Harlem RenaissanceReligion in Africa''', Vol. 12, Fasc. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.1981). Taylor & Francis, 2004pp. pp81-104.776)</ref>

Negotitions were immediately initiated ===Meeting with the [[Ecumenical Patriarch===McGuire's concern with legitimacy was evident in his attempt to secure recognition from the Greek Orthodox Church in America|Russian Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. In December 1921, three months after his consecration, McGuire, through the intercession of Eastern Orthodox Church in America]] in order to obtain valid prelates, was granted an audience with Patriarch [[Holy OrdersMeletius IV (Metaxakis) of Constantinople|Apostolic OrdersMeletios]]while the latter was on a visit to New York City. The Russians were hesitant to assist Patriarch was interested in the formation origins and dogma of another "independent" jurisdiction however, making it clear that they were willing to talk, but in the end, they intended to fully control this Black jurisdictionAOC. Such an arrangement He accepted the Jacobite episcopal source as legitimate but was totally unacceptable to Frconcerned over its [[Monophysitism|monophysite]] dogma. To McGuire this must have been a relatively minor matter and he had no difficulty in satisfying the other leaders of this new jurisdictionPatriarch. Other Orthodox groups Meletios also was concerned with Western Christian influences in dogma that might have permeated the U.S.A. expressed AOC especially on the same willingness and intent as question of the Russians, however, nature of the ''African Orthodox Church'' finally entered into negotiations with Archbishop [[w:Joseph René VilatteHoly Trinity|Joseph René VilatteTrinity]] . (Both Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism adhere to the belief that the ''"American Catholic Church"'' (ACC).<ref>The "American Catholic Church" (ACC) was a sect founded by Holy Spirit [[w:Joseph René VilatteFilioque|Joseph René Vilatteproceeds from both the Father and Son]] as an off-shoot , while Orthodoxy holds procession only from the Father). Here too McGuire appears to have satisfied the Patriarch. Other areas of agreement between Greek Orthodoxy and the Episcopalian Church. It AOC included common acceptance of the jurisdictions and groups which had come out dogmatic decisions of Joseph René Vilatte's Episcopal ministry or were under his oversight. Among them were French and English speaking constituenciesthe seven [[Ecumenical Councils]], the seven [[Holy Mysteries|Sacraments]], and Polish and Italian ordinariates. The ACC began on the original form of the [[August 20Nicene Creed]], 1894the concept of transubstantiation, at a synod held in Clevelandthe declaration of the Virgin Mary as [[Mother of God]], Ohiojustification by both faith and good works, where Polish-speaking parishes joined and the jurisdiction rejection of Bishop Vilatte, however predestination. McGuire claimed that the Patriarch accepted the ACC was actually incorporated in July 1915AOC as an Orthodox Church but would not afford it [[Full communion|communion]] with Eastern Orthodoxy until it demonstrated stability and growth.</ref>

Fr. McGuire had himself re-ordained [[Bishop]] in the ''American Catholic Church'' being consecrated on [[September 28]] 1921, in Chicago, IllinoisIn 1924 Meletios and his successor, by Archbishop [[w:Joseph René VilatteGregory VII of Constantinople|Joseph René VilatteGregorios VII]],<ref>Joseph René Vilatte was ordained to requested more information and received copies of the AOC'''Diaconate''' on [[June 6]]s Divine Liturgy, 1885canons, constitution and to Declaration of Faith. Despite the '''Priesthood''' on [[June 7]]interest shown, 1885, by Bishop [[w:Eduard Herzog|Eduard Herzog]]the AOC never gained the desired recognition from a major Eastern Orthodox Church. Orthodoxy does recognize different rites, but one of the stumbling blocks may have been the Old Catholic Bishop apparent eclectic nature of Berne, Switzerlandthe AOC's liturgy and services. His '''Episcopal Consecration''' took place on [[May 29]], 1892At its inception, in the Cathedral liturgy was described as a mixture of Archbishop Alvares in Colombo (Ceylon)Roman Catholicism, when he Anglicanism and Orthodoxy. The chief service was consecrated by the Mass; minor and major orders were conferred through the Latin Rite [[Church of Antioch (Syriac)|Jacobite]] Bishop Mar Julious I ([[w:Antonio Francisco Xavier AlvaresRoman Pontifical|Antonio Francisco Xavier AlvaresCatholic Pontifical]]) ; and by two other Jacobite bishops, with the permission of official hymnal was the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch (Anglican ''[[w:Ignatius Peter IVHymns Ancient and Modern|Ignatius Peter IV (III)Hymns Ancient and Modern]]). His long time goal had been to be recognized as the ''"Old Catholic Archbishop of North America."'' The Jacobites consecrated him as: ''"Mar Timotheous I, Jacobite Old Catholic Bishop of North America."''<br> The Episcopal Church subsequently AOC was essentially [[Excommunicationw:Anglo-Catholicism|excommunicatedHigh Anglican]] him. And the Roman Catholic Church excommunicated him both in 1900 and in 1907, although he it was reconciled to Rome from 1925 up Orthodox only to his death in 1929. (See: [[Episcopi vagantes]]).<br> Some of the Old Catholic sects descended from Vilatte claim that, despite the fact extent that he its leader had, in practical fact, abandoned any connection with the Jacobitestitle of Patriarch, some of the Jacobite sects in India consider him a "Saint". And while that the validity original form of Vilatte's Orders in the Roman Catholic Church was never finally settled, though personal opinions tend to the negative, most non-Roman Old Catholics concede his Orders were valid.</ref> assisted by bishop Carl A. Nybladh who [[Nicene Creed]] had been consecrated by Vilatte.<ref>Right Rev. Philippe L. De Coster (B.Th.adopted, D.D. (Belgium), Latin Old Roman Catholic Church of Flanders). ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/2199133/African-Orthodox African and that its episcopal source was in an Orthodox Church: Its General History]''. 1st Ed. Publ. Eucharist and Devotion, 1993-2008. p.3.)<ref name=Natsoulas/ref>

In 1924, the newly organized conclave of AOC unanimously elected McGuire [[Archbishop]] of the church. During the remaining decade of his life McGuire built AOC into a thriving international church. Branches were eventually established in Canada, Barbados, Cuba, [[Archdiocese of Johannesburg and Pretoria|South Africa]], [[Archdiocese of Kampala and All Uganda|Uganda]], [[Archdiocese of Kenya|Kenya]], Miami, Chicago, Harlem, Boston, Cambridge (Massachusetts), and elsewhere. The official organ of AOC, ''The Negro Churchman,'' became an effective link for the far-flung organization.<ref>Tony name=Martin. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004. pp.776</ref>

McGuire founded a parish of his denomination in West Palm Beach, Florida in 1925. Two years after that, he consecrated an African clergyman as Metropolitan Archbishop for South Africa and central and southern Africa, [[Daniel William Daniel Alexander]]. At the same time McGuire was elected [[Patriarch]] of the denomination with the title ''Alexander I''. The church then spread to Uganda, as well.

[[Category:People|McGuire]]