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Cyril of Jerusalem

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'''Cyril of Jerusalem''' was a distinguished theologian of the early Church (315-386). He is venerated as a saint by both the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church.

<H2>Life and Character.</h2>

Little is known
of his life before he became bishop; the assignment
of the year 315 for his birth rests on mere
conjecture. He seems to have been ordained deacon by
Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem about 335, and priest
some ten years later by Maximus. Naturally
inclined to peace and conciliation, he
took at first a rather moderate
position, distinctly averse from Arianism,
but (like not a few of his undoubtedly
orthodox contemporaries) by no means eager
to accept the uncompromising term ''homooussios''.
Separating from his metropolitan, Acacius of
Caesarea (q.v.), a partizan of Arius, Cyril took the
side of the Eusebians, the "right wing" of the
post-Nicene conciliation party, and thus got into
difficulties with his superior, which were increased
by Acacius's jealousy of the importance assigned
to Cyril's see by the First Council of Nicaea. A council
held under Acacius's influence in 358 deposed Cyril
and forced him to retire to Tarsus. At that time he was officially charged with selling church property to help the poor, although the actual motivation appears to be that Cyril was teaching Nicene and not Arian doctrine in his catechism. On the other
hand, the conciliatory Council of Seleucia in the
following year, at which Cyril was present, deposed
Acacias. In 360 the process was reversed through
the metropolitan's court influence, and Cyril
suffered another year's exile from Jerusalem, until
Julian the Apostate's accession allowed him to return. The
Arian emperor Valens banished him once more in
367, after which he remained undisturbed until his
death, his jurisdiction being expressly confirmed
by the [[Second Ecumenical Council|First Council of Constantinople]] (381), at which he
was present. At that council, he voted for acceptance of the term ''homooussios'', having been finally convinced that there was no better alternative.

<H2>Theological Position.</h2>

Though his theology was at first somewhat
indefinite in phraseology, he undoubtedly gave a
thorough adhesion to the Nicene orthodoxy. Even
if he does avoid the debatable term ''homoousios'',
he expresses its sense in many passages, which
exclude equally Patripassianism, Sabellianism, and
the Arian formula "There was a time when the Son
was not." In other points he takes the ordinary
ground of the Eastern Fathers, as in the emphasis
he lays on the freedom of the will, the ''autexousion'',
and his imperfect realization of the
factor so much more strongly brought
out in the West--sin. To him sin is
the consequence of freedom, not a
natural condition. The body is not the cause, but
the instrument of sin. The remedy for it is
repentance, on which he insists. Like many of the
Eastern Fathers, he has an essentially moralistic
conception of Christianity. His doctrine of the
Resurrection is not quite so realistic as that of other
Fathers; but his conception of the Church is
decidedly empirical-- the existing catholic Church
form is the true one, intended by Christ, the
completion of the Church of the Old Testament. His
doctrine on the Eucharist is noteworthy. If he
sometimes seems to approach the symbolical view,
at other times he comes very close to a strong
realistic doctrine. The bread and wine are not
mere elements, but the body and blood of Christ.

<H2>Catechetical Lectures</h2>

His famous twenty-three catechetical lectures
(Gk. ''Katecheseis''), which he delivered while still a
presbyter in 347 or 348, contain instructions on
the principal topics of Christian faith and practise,
in rather a popular than a scientific manner, full
of a warm pastoral love and care for the
catechumens to whom they were delivered. Each lecture
is based upon a text of Scripture, and there is an
abundance of Scriptural quotation throughout.
After a general introduction, eighteen
lectures follow for the ''competentes'', and
the remaining five are addressed to
the newly baptized, in preparation
for the reception of the communion.
Parallel with the exposition of the creed as it was
then received in the church of Jerusalem are
vigorous polemics against pagan, Jewish, and heretical
errors. They are of great importance for the light
which they throw on the method of instruction
usual in that age, as well as upon the liturgical
practises of the period, of which they give the
fullest account extant.

----
Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyc of Religion

[[Category: Bishops]]
[[Category: Church Fathers]]
[[Category:Saints]]

John Chrysostom

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Our Father Among the Saints '''John Chrysostom''' (347-407), Archbishop of Constantinople, was a notable [[Christian]] [[bishop]] and preacher from the 4th and 5th centuries in Syria and [[Constantinople]]. He is famous for eloquence in public speaking and his denunciation of abuse of authority in the Church and in the Roman Empire of the time. He had notable [[ascetic]] sensibilities. After his death he was named '''Chrysostom''', which comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chrysostomos'', "golden mouthed". The Orthodox Church honors him as a [[saint]] (feastday, [[November 13]]) and count him among the Three Holy Hierarchs (feastday, [[January 30]]), together with Saints [[Basil the Great]] and [[Gregory the Theologian]]. He is also recognized by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which considers him a saint and Doctor of the Church, and the [[Church of England]], both of whom commemorate him on [[September 13]]. His [[relics]] were stolen from Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204 and brought to Rome, but were returned on [[27 November]] 2004 by [[Pope John Paul II]].

He is sometimes referred to as "[[John of Antioch]]," but that name more properly refers to the bishop of Antioch in A.D. 429-441, who led a group of moderate Eastern bishops in the [[Nestorian]] controversy.

== Biography ==
He was born in [[Antioch]] of noble parents: his father was a high ranking military officer. His father died soon after his birth and so he was brought up by his [[Christianity|Christian]] mother. He was baptised in 370 and tonsured a reader (one of the [[minor orders]] of the Church). He began his education under a [[paganism|pagan]] teacher named [[Libanius]], but went on to study [[theology]] under [[Diodore]] of [[Tarsus in Cilicia|Tarsus]] (one of the leaders of the later Antiochian school) while practising extreme asceticism. He was not satisfied, however, and became a [[hermit]] (circa 375) and remained so until poor health forced a return to Antioch.

He was then ordained a [[deacon]] in 381 by St. [[Meletius of Antioch]], and was ordained a [[priest|presbyter]] in 386 by Bishop [[Flavian I of Antioch]]. It seems this was the happiest period of his life. Over about twelve years, he gained much popularity for the eloquence of his public speaking. Notable are his insightful expositions of [[Bible]] passages and moral teaching. The most valuable of his works are his ''Homilies'' on various books of the Bible. He particularly emphasized almsgiving. He was also most concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor. He spoke out against abuse of wealth and personal property. In many respects, the following he amassed was no surprise. His straightforward understanding of the Scriptures (in contrast to the Alexandrian tendency towards allegorical interpretation) meant that the themes of his talks were eminently social, explaining the Christian's conduct in life.

One incident that happened during his service in Antioch perhaps illustrates the influence of his sermons best. Around the time he arrived in Antioch, the bishop had to intervene with the Emperor St. [[Theodosius I]] on behalf of citizens who had gone on a riotous rampage in which statues of the Emperor and his family were mutilated. During the weeks of [[Lent]] in 397, John preached twenty one sermons in which he entreated the people to see the error of their ways. These apparently had a lasting impression on the people: many pagans reportedly converted to Christianity as a result of them. In the event, Theodosius' vengeance was not as severe as it might have been, merely changing the legal standing of the city.

In 398 he was called (somewhat against his will) to be the [[bishop]] of [[Constantinople]]. He deplored the fact that Imperial court protocol would now assign to him access to privileges greater than the highest state officials. During his time as bishop he adamantly refused to host lavish entertainments. This meant he was popular with the common people, but unpopular with the wealthy and the clergy. In a sermon soon after his arrival he said "people praise the predecessor to disparage the successor". His reforms of the clergy were also unpopular with these groups. He told visiting regional preachers to return to the churches they were meant to be serving - without any pay out.

His time there was to be far less at ease than in Antioch. [[Theophilus of Alexandria|Theophilus]], the [[Pope of Alexandria]], wanted to bring Constantinople under his sway and opposed John's appointment to Constantinople. Being an opponent of [[Origen]]'s teachings, he accused John of being too partial to the teachings of that master. Theophilus had disciplined four [[Egypt|Egyptian]] [[monk|monks]] (known as "the Tall Brothers") over their support of Origen's teachings. They fled to and were welcomed by John. He made another enemy in [[Aelia Eudoxia]], the wife of the eastern Emperor [[Arcadius]], who assumed (perhaps with justification) that his denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at herself.

St. John was either fearless when denouncing offences in high places. An alliance was soon formed against him by Eudoxia, Theophilus and others of his enemies. They held a [[synod]] in 403 to charge John, in which the accusation of Origenism was used against him. It resulted in his deposition and banishment. He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, however, for the people of the city were very angry about his departure. There was also a "quaking" in the Imperial bedroom (thought to be either an actual earthquake or perhaps as a stillbirth/miscarriage for the empress) which was seen as a sign of [[God]]'s anger. Peace was shortlived. A silver statue of Eudoxia was erected near the [[cathedral]] of [[Hagia Sophia]]. John denounced the dedication ceremonies. He spoke against her in harsh terms: "Again [[Herodias]] rages; again she is confounded; again she demands the head of John on a charger" (an allusion to the events surrounding the death of [[John the Forerunner]]). Once again he was banished, this time to Cucusus in [[Armenia]].

The pope in [[Rome]] ([[Pope Innocent I|Innocent I]] at this time) protested at this banishment, but to no avail. John wrote letters which still held great influence in Constantinople. As a result of this, he was further exiled to Pityus (on the eastern edge of the Black Sea). However, he never reached this destination as he died during the journey. His final words were "Glory be to God for all things!"

== His importance ==

During a time when city clergy were subject to much criticism for their high life style, John was determined to reform his clergy at Constantinople. These efforts were met with resistance and limited success. He was particularlu noted as an excellent preacher. As a theologian, he has been and continues to be very important in [[Eastern Christianity]], but has been less important to [[Western Christianity]]. He generally rejected the contemporary trend for emphasis on allegory, instead speaking plainly and applying Bible passages and lessons to everyday life. In some ways, he represents a sort of synthesis between the hermeneutic methods of the more allegorical [[Alexandrian School]] and the more literal [[Antiochian School]].

His banishments demonstrated that secular powers had strong influence in the eastern Church at this period in history. They also demonstrated the rivalry between Contantinople and Alexandria, both wanting to be recognized as the preeminent eastern see. This mutual hostility would eventually lead to much suffering for the Church and the Eastern Empire. Meanwhile in the West, Rome's primacy had been unquestioned from the fourth century onwards. An interesting point to note in the wider development of the [[papacy]], is the fact that Innocent's protests had availed nothing, demonstrating the lack of influence the bishops of Rome held in the East at this time.

== The ''Homilies against the Judaizers'' ==

Chrysostom wrote of the Jews and of Judaizers in eight homilies ''Adversus Judaeos'' (against the Judaizers) [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/chrysostom-jews6.html]. These quotes are translations posted by Paul Halsall from the original Greek: other researchers give slightly different translations. At the time he delivered these sermons, Chrysostom was a tonsured reader, and had not yet been ordained a priest or bishop.

* "The festivals of the pitiful and miserable Jews are soon to march upon us one after the other and in quick succession: the feast of Trumpets, the feast of Tabernacles, the fasts. There are many in our ranks who say they think as we do. Yet some of these are going to watch the festivals and others will join the Jews in keeping their feasts and observing their fasts. I wish to drive this perverse custom from the Church right now." (Homily I, I, 5)
* "Shall I tell you of their plundering, their covetousness, their abandonment of the poor, their thefts, their cheating in trade? the whole day long will not be enough to give you an account of these things. But do their festivals have something solemn and great about them? They have shown that these, too, are impure." (Homily I, VII, 1)
* "But before I draw up my battle line against the Jews, I will be glad to talk to those who are members of our own body, those who seem to belong to our ranks although they observe the Jewish rites and make every effort to defend them. Because they do this, as I see it, they deserve a stronger condemnation than any Jew." (HOMILY IV, II, 4)
* "Are you Jews still disputing the question? Do you not see that you are condemned by the testimony of what Christ and the prophets predicted and which the facts have proved? But why should this surprise me? That is the kind of people you are. From the beginning you have been shameless and obstinate, ready to fight at all times against obvious facts." (HOMILY V, XII, 1)

Many researchers believe that the purpose of these attacks was to prevent Christians from joining with Jewish customs, and thus prevent the erosion of Chrysostom's flock. Others characterize Chrysostom and other Church fathers as anti-Semitic.

See also: [http://www.chrysostom.org/jews.html Was Saint John Chrysostom Anti-Semitic?]

== Work on liturgy ==

Two of his writings deserve special mention. He harmonized the liturgical life of the Church by revising the prayers and rubrics of the [[Divine Liturgy]], or celebration of the Holy [[Eucharist]]. To this day, [[Orthodox Church]] typically celebrates the Divine Liturgy of John Chrysostom, together with [[Roman Catholic]] churches that are in the Eastern or Byzantine rites (i.e., [[Uniates]]). These same churches also read his [[Paschal Homily]] at every [[Pascha]], the greatest feast of the [[Church]] year.

== Modern influence ==

Whatever the original intent of Chrysostom, his writings have been circulated by many groups in an attempt to foster [[anti-Semitism]] or opposition to Christianity. One of the groups to do with was the Nazis during World War II, who used it to try to convince Christians in Germany and Austria that the Jews deserved to be exterminated.

Additionally, Orthodox Christians throughout the world participate in St. John's [[Divine Liturgy]] nearly every week and hear his famous [[Paschal Homily]] at every [[Pascha]].

== External link ==
* [http://www.chrysostom.org/ The Saint John Chrysostom Webpage]

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==Orthodox Blogs==
You might enjoy sifting through these sites which offer very personal takes on Orthodoxy. This isn't a comprehensive list, but these bloggers have formed something of an intertextual community, and you are likely to find on them links to every other Orthodox blog in the Universe, and many interesting non-Orthodox ones as well. A more comprehensive and up-to-date list can probably be found at the webring for Orthodox Bloggers.

* Chris J. Davis .org
* [http://www.chrysostom.org/andrew/ Andrew Stephen Damick] Antiochian Seminarian
* [http://www.doxos.com Doxos] by Huw Raphael
* Glen Rose Farm - “Notes from a Hillside Farm; being Musings and Observations on Life, Letters, and our Most Holy Faith, by a Lawyer, Sheep-farmer, and Communicant of the Orthodox Church